===================================================================== Bridging the Gap - Great Ape Project - International - Issue 1 ===================================================================== --------------------------------------------------------------------- MESSAGE FROM PETER SINGER The Great Ape Project It is now three years since The Great Ape Project was launched in London, simultaneously with the publication of the book, The Great Ape Project, edited by myself and Paola Cavalieri. In that time, our ideas have reached many millions of people around the world. The book itself has been published in both Britain and the United States, and is still in print in both editions. It has also been translated into German and Italian, and published in those countries, and a Spanish translation is in progress. But far more people have heard of the project, through newspaper articles in dozens of countries, and through television coverage. In the United States, The Great Ape Project was featured in the prime-time ABC network current affairs program 20/20, in an episode that brought a deluge of mail, and eventually led to the release of Booee and eight other chimpanzees from a laboratory. A version of the same program was shown on Australia's top-rating national current affairs program. In Britain, Channel 4 made a program, The Great Ape Trial, specifically about the idea of whether the law should be changed to grant great apes rights, and the program's "jury" voted by a margin of 5 to 1 that it should. It seems that the public was ripe for a discussion of the moral status of the nonhuman great apes, and The Great Ape Project has been a catalyst for getting the idea of rights for the great apes into the mainstream. Meanwhile, after a slow start, the international organisation has been growing too. There are national co-ordinators of The Great Ape Project in Britain, Sweden, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Taiwan. It gained a boost in the United States when the last day of the World Congress for Animals, attended by 2500 people in Washington, DC, was devoted entirely to the theme of The Great Ape Project. Speakers included Jane Goodall, Roger and Deborah Fouts, myself, and lawyers Steve Ann Chambers and Steven Wise. The Great Ape Project also brought Karl Ammann from Kenya to speak on the killing of gorillas and chimpanzees for food. Hundreds of attendees signed up to support the project. The Great Ape Project now has a modest office and a part-time employee, in Oregon, USA. While spreading the ideas behind The Great Ape Project has been our first priority, and building the organisation has had to come next, there have also been practical activities that have already helped specific apes. In particular, as already mentioned, and described elsewhere in this newsletter, Booee and his companions from New York's LEMSIP laboratory are now in a sanctuary, an outcome that flowed directly from the ABC-TV program that used his plight - and his capacity to use sign language to show that he remembered Roger Fouts after 16 years of separation - to exemplify the ideas of The Great Ape Project. The Great Ape Project has also supported the efforts of another organisation, Primarily Primates, to provide a sanctuary for a different group of chimpanzees, known as the Buckshire chimpanzees. They too have now escaped dreadful conditions and are in a sanctuary where they have much more space than before and are safe from experimentation. In Taiwan, we have worked to save orang-utans who were smuggled into the country illegally as babies, in order to make cute pets, and then abandoned when they became too big and strong to be kept in a house. We are seeking to have these orang-utans repatriated to the jungles from which they came, or if that is not possible, to be released into sanctuaries with adequate room for them to roam. In Africa, we are working with Karl Ammann and others to find ways of stopping the "bushmeat" trade. All of this work is a way of preparing the ground for the steps that will bring the great apes within the community of equals - that basic community of beings who recognise each other as having fundamental rights, including the rights to life, liberty and protection from torture. How this historic breach in the species barrier will occur is something that we do not yet know, but we must be prepared to try all the avenues open to us. In the United States, we are joining with lawyers who are expert in the field of law relating to animals, to investigate ways of bringing a case on behalf of a nonhuman great ape. In other countries, we have been talking to members of parliament. While we are all impatient for change, we have to realise that in Western society, at least, the species barrier has been in place for millennia, and any attempt to breach it will need to be very well prepared indeed if it is to have any chance of success. GAP NEWSLETTERS International and National Editions This is the first newsletter of The Great Ape Project-International. You may have previously received newsletters from national sections of The Great Ape Project. From now on, the main newsletter will be an international edition. National sections may continue to send out newsletters or bulletins as appropriate. There will be some overlap with national editions at first. Ideas Send us your ideas, pictures and articles for the newsletter. We also need reports of personal encounters with nonhuman great apes (captive or free living) for a Readers' Column in newsletters, and perhaps for use on the GAP-International Web Site. A New Life Begins For many years, the chimpanzee Booee lived in a laboratory called LEMSIP, in New York state, USA. His 'home' was a steel-barred cage, measuring less than two meters across, in a room that never saw daylight. He had been infected with hepatitis C, and although he was not ill, he could be infectious. Booee's fate would have remained unknown to the public, had not American TV Producer Dean Irwin heard about The Great Ape Project. He contacted Peter Singer and Roger Fouts, one of the contributors to the book The Great Ape Project. Roger had known Booee long ago, and taught him sign language. They speculated on whether a chimpanzee could remember someone over many years. Dean decided to bring Roger across the United States and film his reunion with Booee. A Chimpanzee Never Forgets? The result was screened by ABC's 20/20 program in the US, and on A Current Affair in Australia in which Peter Singer also appeared. Booee not only remembered Roger, he remembered the sign for his own name, and his nickname sign for Roger, as well as several other signs. The saddest part of the film was when Roger had to go, leaving Booee in his bare cage. Shortly after their parting, Roger wrote: "Many of you may have seen the 20/20 piece on my reunion with Booee, televised May 5, 1995. It was something that I did not want to do and now understand why. Booee is in my dreams. I see him over and over again moving away from me, with a heart-rending demeanor, as I tell him I must leave. I had hoped that he would not recognize me, and would see me as just one more lab-coated visitor passing through the facility. But Booee recognized me immediately; after 17 years, he remembered me, and it was as if time had not passed. We were playing the same games and our relationship had not changed. He was still the dear little boy who had taught me so much during my fledgling years as a new Ph.D. I was torn by the joy of finding an old and dear friend and the heartache of knowing that I would have to leave him in a few short hours. Was it worth it? I do not know. I can only hope that the effect on the viewers who watched and became aware of the plight of captive chimpanzees was worth the pain Booee and I suffered when I told him I had to leave." From Tool of Science to One of the Family... Although Roger worked with Booee in sign language experiments, Booee was 'owned' by another laboratory. Roger was unable to stop him being taken away for other, much more sinister, experiments. Booee was born at a biomedical facility. The staff were unaware that his mother was pregnant, so Booee's arrival came as a surprise. He was an unexpected addition to the facility, and no plans had been made to use him in a specific study. He was a 'free' chimp, an unexpected bonus. He thus became a chance to try out new, 'hot' procedures that are only read about in journals. Booee made his first mistake when he was a few days old. He convulsed, prompting some of the researchers to suspect that he was epileptic. The 'hot' topic in those days was 'split brain' operations, recently discovered to alleviate grand mal seizures. So Booee had his brain split when he was only a few days old. This operation was relatively benign. It involved cutting all the connections between the two cerebral hemispheres, in essence giving Booee two separate brains. There were a few problems. Booee developed edema, and the surgeons had to open his cranium again to relieve the pressure. Fortunately, one of the doctors, Fred Schneider, took pity on this poor little chimp in agonizing pain, and with the bandaged head. He took him home to recuperate with his family of six children. Booee's new home proved to offer a great life. His surrogate parents enjoyed having him there, and he became very attached to his human mother and to his new family. When he was 10 months old, the family went wilderness camping and didn't think that they could take him along. He was left with babysitters. He had become so attached to the Schneiders that he fell into a depression, developed pneumonia, and was close to death when the family returned. Fortunately, he recovered. At the age of three, his human parents began to discover that baby chimps are very much like human babies. They demand mothering and go through different phases as they grow up. For example, the living room drapes became vines to climb on, and cupboards had to be locked to prevent an inquisitive chimp with a 'sweet tooth' from raiding the larder. But it was Booee's normal chimp territoriality that eventually got him in trouble. If a stranger walked by the house on the sidewalk, or if a dog dared to enter the yard, Booee would do a very proper chimpanzee threat display to drive the intruder away. Each display would end with a backhand thump hitting a large picture window. One winter after this had happened again, the Schneiders had to board the window to keep the cold out, and it became obvious to these good people that their house was not a proper home for a chimpanzee. They were faced with a dilemma. If they returned him to the lab, he would surely be used in biomedical experiments. By this time, Dr. Schneider had visited Allen and Beatrice Gardner and the chimp Washoe. In 1970, shortly before Washoe arrived there, Booee and his entire human family traveled from Maryland to the Institute of Primate Studies at the University of Oklahoma. Parting with Booee was traumatic for the entire Schneider family and they wept as they drove to Oklahoma. They were invited to spend the night as guests of the director of the Institute and his wife. The children were concerned that Booee would not get his favorite foods and told the director's wife to remember that he liked brown sugar with his morning oatmeal. The Schneiders reported having felt physical pain when they left Booee to begin his new life the next morning. Booee became one of the Oklahoma chimps whom Roger Fouts and his students began tutoring in American Sign Language. ...And Back Several years later, the Institute's director decided to change direction and sought a contract from Merck Sharp and Dohme to do hepatitis research. He did not get that contract, but eventually sent all the chimps he owned to the lab that did receive the contract. Booee was again lost in the biomedical research complex from which his human parents had hoped to protect him. He was subjected to invasive research, and spent 16 years in conditions like those seen on 20/20. As a result, Booee is now a carrier of the Hepatitis C virus, for which there is currently no cure. Sanctuary Dean Irwin received both an Emmy and a Genesis award for his program, which brought a tremendous response from the public. In the autumn of 1995, following the 20/20 program, and thanks to the commitment of many people all over the world, Booee was released by LEMSIP. Together with 8 other chimpanzees from the New York University laboratory, he is currently at the Wildlife Waystation, near Los Angeles. When space becomes available, he will gradually learn to live with other chimpanzees in a large enclosure. Roger and Deborah Fouts have made several visits to Booee at the Wildlife Waystation. Peter Singer and Paul Waldau of Great Ape Project-International have also been to see how he is doing. Martine Collette of the Wildlife Waystation has said: "Waystation staff and volunteers have constructed nine primate quarantine enclosures at a cost of approximately $150,000. The 'rooms' are comfortably large and airy. The wire fronts allow the chimps to view green shrubbery and trees, earthy hillsides and the enlivening sights and sounds of California birds, lizards, squirrels and insects. The roof covering the enclosures includes more than a dozen skylights. Available to them are climbing devices including platforms, ropes and tires. To challenge as well as comfort the mind, sources of animal enrichment include people, music, televisions, books, magazines and toys." But Martine is, rightly, not content with the space they have available at present, and is building a much larger enclosure for these nine chimps and a large number of others who they will also be getting from laboratories. In their new quarters (which Martine hopes will be finished by early 1997), all the chimps will live in social groups and will have access to outside runs, as well as comfortable housing to shelter from bad weather. The pressure of numbers makes it difficult for Wildlife Waystation to provide the extensive facilities that would provide a full life for Booee and the other individual chimpanzees. But Martine Collette has a dream - one which we very much hope will become a reality - of acquiring thousands of acres of land in Arizona that would really give Booee and the others all the space they need. Meanwhile, we would like to express our great appreciation of the care and concern that everyone at the Wildlife Waystation shows for those in their care. How different this is from a 5ft by 5ft by 7ft cage in a dark basement. Fouts Visits Deborah and Roger Fouts have now made three visits to see Booee. With each visit, he has seemed more settled and content. On the first visit, he was especially glad to see Deborah, since they had not seen each other since 1980. The Fouts brought edible treats for Booee and the other chimpanzees. After an initial greeting, Booee was eager to get to the treats, small boxes of juice with straws, bananas, and raisins. But, when the Fouts went to share the treats with his companions, Booee screamed in distress. He was still so deprived that he seemed afraid that the treats would not return. When he had eaten, Booee and Deb played the games they had played when he was a youngster in Oklahoma. Tickle and chase, and then some quiet grooming. When it was time for the Fouts to leave, Booee again screamed and displayed. Again he seemed to not believe their signs that they would return. The Fouts next visited Booee in August, this time with their daughter Hillary. Booee was very excited about the treats, but he was much more interested in games of tickle and chase and grooming with Hillary. During this visit, when Deborah and Roger took the treats to share with the other chimpanzees, Booee was only mildly interested, and did not seem upset that some of his bounty was being shared. This seemed to be an indication that he had settled in and was not afraid of being deprived of food treats or social enrichment. When the Fouts finally had to leave, he was calm and not devastated as he had been in February. During their last visit, in November, the Fouts came early to avoid a large group of visitors and found Booee in a smaller area while his enclosure was being cleaned. This time, he was hardly interested in the treats, and much more interested in grooming and tickling. The boxes of juice with straws were still a big hit, but when it was time to share, Booee merely glanced and continued to tickle Deb. There are now also plans for a visitor to come regularly to sign with Booee. Finally, to answer the question that Roger Fouts asked after his joyful and painful meeting with Booee after so many years: "Was it worth it?" Yes. It was worth it: both for Booee, who is now out of the laboratory; and for the other chimpanzees who have been or will be released and treated with more respect for what they are like. Donations The Great Ape Project would like to thank GAP supporters in Australia and the USA, who donated US$8000 and US$4000, respectively, for Booee. This has been passed on to the Wildlife Waystation, with the express wish that it be used for the extended facilities. A videotape of the 1996 rebroadcast of ABC's 20/20 program showing Booee being reunited with Roger Fouts (August 2, 1996, in the segment called "Almost Human") costs US$29.95 + US$4 shipping. Call ABC at 1-800-505-6139. DEATH IN THE FOREST Great Apes as 'Bushmeat' We cannot forget that, as we campaign for our fellow great apes to be granted the right to life, protection of liberty, and freedom from torture, thousands of gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos are being killed every year in their home forests in Central and West Africa. The killing is done for profit. The victims' bodies are sold as part of a broader trade in what is known as 'bushmeat' - wild animals caught and killed in the forests. Killing gorillas, chimpanzees or bonobos is illegal in every country where it takes place. As species, these great apes are classed as threatened or endangered, and are protected by international law. Those involved in the hunting represent a very small percentage of the human population, but prosecutions are almost unheard of. The catastrophic upsurge in the number of deaths is a result of increased logging activities, mostly by European companies or their subsidiaries and affiliates. These companies have opened up previously inaccessible forests. They have allowed the hunters to travel on company vehicles to remote areas, and away again to transport their prey for sale in the companies' own logging camps and in urban markets. As the logging infrastructure expands, so does the death rate. Media Silence For nearly ten years now, efforts have been made to bring the broader bushmeat trade in forest animals to public attention. Until recently, there has been a surprising lack of interest, and even resistance, from the media in various countries to revealing to the public the full horror of what is going on. Some of the glossier 'nature' magazines have even refused to carry the story because it is 'not pretty'. They say their readers are not ready for this. But the scale and severity of the problem requires in-depth coverage. The news media are able to 'splash' individual stories like the recent discovery of over 200 dead elephants in one spot in the northwestern Congo, but find it hard to give space to report the deaths of thousands of great apes spread over wide geographical areas. Karl Ammann reports that Garry Strieker of CNN watched some 12 hours of video footage, and called the bush meat trade "the biggest conservation issue facing Africa since the Ivory Crisis". But one looks in vain for the bushmeat crisis to receive the extensive coverage that the ivory trade has received. One problem for journalists is to decide which 'slot' the bushmeat 'story' fits into. Is it about the killing of individual great apes? Is it about orphans condemned to a life of isolation and ill-treatment followed by a slow death? Is it about a further threat to already endangered species? Is it about the many other animals affected? Is it about the ill-effects of uncontrolled logging operations, about the rampant commercialisation of a limited traditional human practice, or about a breakdown of law and order? Is it about systematic environmental destruction? Is it an immediate emergency or a long-term problem? Does it come under the heading of current affairs, wildlife or the environment? The answer to all these questions is: Yes. The bushmeat crisis encapsulates a great many of the issues that have to be faced if anything practical is to be done to stop and reverse the destruction of individual animals, their environments and of entire ecosystems. On the 'positive' side, the great scope and complexity of the problems involved means there is something for everyone to do. Some practical actions have already been taken and awareness of the issue is spreading. But much greater public awareness will be needed to spur the various governments, companies, organisations, and individuals involved to take adequate action. Signs of Activity Most attempts to address the problem are in their infancy. We don't have the space to give details here. The World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) has produced a booklet about the problem entitled Slaughter of the Apes. In April 1996 the Cameroon Ministry of Environment and Forests (MINEF) held a conference on "The Impact of Forest Exploitation on Wildlife". The meeting, referred to as The Bushmeat Conference, was sponsored jointly by MINEF and WSPA and was organized by the Yaoundé based NGO Enviro-Protect. Dr Anthony Rose of The Biosynergy Institute in California has now set up The Bushmeat Project (Internet pages at http://biosynergy.org/bushmeat/). As the name of the institute implies, this is seeking to bring together all the various groups and strands of interest, and to get them working in harmony to bring about constructive change. IUCN Red List While the Great Ape Project maintains that our fellow great apes require moral consideration as individuals, rather than as part of the more abstract groupings called 'species' - especially when concern for species is often allowed to override concern for individuals - the endangered status of the nonhuman great apes may help draw attention to their predicament. A press release entitled ANIMALS IN THE RED: Mounting Evidence of Jeopardy to World's Species, put out by the IUCN in Washington, D.C., on October 3, 1996, says: "A quarter of all known mammal species are at risk of extinction, according to the new 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals, the most comprehensive scientific assessment of threatened species ever produced." "The most significant threat to the majority of species at risk of extinction was found to be habitat reduction, fragmentation and degradation, reflecting human population growth combined with economic development. A surprisingly important factor was introduction of non-native species, along with exploitation, pollution and climate change." "Of the 26 orders of mammals, 24 include threatened species, and the six largest orders have more than 50 threatened species each. The highest proportion of threatened species are in the orders that include monkeys and apes..." At one point, they conclude: "The finding that 25 percent of mammal species are threatened with extinction must drastically increase the urgency of conservation initiatives across the globe." Action Now? We can only hope that this will help produce a response from all the organisations and individuals with an ability to affect the bushmeat trade, ranging from national governments, the World Bank and the African Development Bank, through animal advocacy and conservation organisations, to local groups and lone activists. It is already too late for the many thousands who have suffered and died. Let us take action now to ensure that others do not share their fate. SPECIES BARRIER? Binti Jua: Returning The Favor On August 16, 1996, at the Brookfield Zoo near Chicago, a 3-year-old boy fell 18 feet onto the concrete floor of a gorilla enclosure. He hit his head and lay unconscious. A 7-year-old gorilla mother named Binti Jua, with her own baby on her back, picked up the child. She carried him and placed him near a door within easy reach of zoo staff. He was then taken to hospital, where he made a speedy recovery. This act of Binti Jua's attracted media attention worldwide, with 'experts' who had never met her and who had little knowledge of her as an individual making statements about what she is like. Some denied that this was 'altruism'. It was claimed that she had learned her parenting skills from her human keepers. Although how she had learned to take the boy to the nearest point to human assistance is yet to be explained. Binti Jua, by taking action to help a defenseless human child in trouble, has awakened a chord of compassion in many of us. Binti's act of kindness demonstrated that there is more to her and other gorillas than many of us have thought. Yet when we look in the mirror, it is clear that gorillas have not been treated with anywhere near equal compassion by our own species. The GAP was formed to change the way humans treat other great apes. Currently, all non-human great apes are treated by human laws as property, as 'things' without rights. GAP is seeking to change the law to give all great apes the right to life, the protection of individual liberty, and freedom from torture. Can anyone look at Binti Jua's actions and still say that this is an unreasonable request? Scientific Evidence In recent years the scientific community has accumulated a large body of evidence which shows that our fellow great apes - gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and orangutans - are also complex, sensitive individuals, with their own wants and needs, and extensive social structures. Roger Fouts, Codirector of the Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute, Professor of Psychology at Central Washington University and member of the Executive Committee of the Great Ape Project-USA said: "Binti's behavior has demonstrated what modern biology since Darwin has been trying to tell us, namely that humans are not different in kind from our fellow animals. Binti clearly demonstrates that, just as some humans are capable of compassion, caring and altruistic acts, so too are some members of the gorilla species. Comparable compassionate acts have also been observed in chimpanzees, monkeys, dogs, cats, horses and others. "Obviously compassionate empathy is an adaptive trait. If it were not, very few infants of any species with long childhoods that depend on their mother's compassionate empathy would survive. Emotions have a long evolutionary history, both those that we value and those that we fear." Bridging the Gap Peter Singer's comment was: "Binti's behavior has surprised millions of Americans only because we are brought up to believe that humans are separated from animals by an unbridgeable gulf. In fact, the Great Apes are capable of altruism, and of thought." GAP applauds the national and international recognition given to Binti Jua for her caring efforts. We now ask that humans reciprocate by recognizing in law the importance of all individual great apes. An Intriguing Person The American magazine People later declared Binti Jua one of the "25 Most Intriguing People" of 1996. According to People: "Binti-Jua became a rallying symbol of her endangered species - and an example to us all." She "reminded her friends up the evolutionary ladder [sic] that behaving like an animal may not be such an ignoble thing after all." LATE EXTRA! A Word from Binti "While most people have probably forgotten about Binti the gorilla, who saved the child at Brookfield Zoo, I have not. My name is also Binti. I found it ironic to hear about Binti the gorilla, because my mother Birute Galdikas has spent 25 years studying another great ape, the orangutan. I myself was born in Indonesia, and was raised for the first three years of my life in the jungles of Borneo. I was given a Dayak name which means 'a bird that flies high' in their language. Binti the gorilla's name comes from the Swahili language and means 'daughter of sunshine.' "After Binti's dramatic rescue of the child, media interviewers and pundits expressed surprise that a gorilla would rescue a human child. Some of them suggested that the gorilla's actions were a result of her being hand-raised by humans. I found it funny that the interviewers could think that humans were the only animals capable of kindness. I find it even more ironic that a gorilla, who shares 98% of her genetic material with us, whose species is going extinct because of human greed, could save one of our children, while we, the so-called compassionate ones, destroy their habitat and children every day." Binti Brindamour Birute Galdikas, GAP Supporter, President of the Orangutan Foundation International, is also a signatory to the Declaration on Great Apes. Dr. Galdikas has spent twenty-six years studying wild orangutans in Borneo (Kalimantan). This is one of the longest, on-going continuous studies by one principal investigator of any mammal in the wild. The recipient of numerous prestigious awards for her tireless work on behalf of orangutans, Dr. Galdikas is the author of Reflections of Eden: My Years with the Orangutans of Borneo (London: Victor Gollancz, 1995). She is currently involved in several major projects: 1) The maintenance of Camp Leakey, her 26 year field research site; 2) The restoration of degraded forest in Borneo by planting light tolerant, canopy species and shade tolerant, understory species on former slash-and-burn fields adjacent to Tanjung Puting National Park; 3) The maintenance of the Orphaned Orangutan Education and Care Center in Borneo; 4) The development of a sanctuary for abused, abandoned and confiscated North American privately-owned circus or entertainment orangutans in the United States; 5) Advising on captive orangutan populations around the world; 6) The education of youngsters on endangered orangutan populations, which once prevalent, are now found only in the regions of Malaysia and Indonesia; 7) Increasing on-going understanding of the orangutan species by providing detailed knowledge to the scientific community; for instance, she was the first to document the birth intervals of wild orangutans of approximately eight years. The Binti Jua tape from the NBC Dateline show on 8-20-96 in the segment called "Gorilla Mom" costs $24.95 plus $4.75 shipping in the US. Call 1-800-420-2626. TAXONOMY What's in a Name? "I demand of you, and of the whole world, that you show me a generic character ... by which to distinguish between Man and Ape. I myself most assuredly know of none. I wish somebody would indicate one to me. But, if I had called man an ape, or vice versa, I would have fallen under the ban of all ecclesiastics. It may be that as a naturalist I ought to have done so." Carolus Linnaeus, Letter to J. G. Gmelin, February 14, 1747 Traditional taxonomy aims to reflect the evolutionary histories of species, but it does so by a rather subjective evaluation of a range of anatomical and chemical features based on fossils and extant species. Though widely accepted, it has nonetheless been criticized for giving differential weighting to particular characteristics, because of the individual interpretation of the person doing the classifying. This is why, perhaps surprisingly, there is currently no agreed standard for classifying species into higher taxonomic categories (e.g. genus, family). Under such a classification system, humans are placed in the same Family as chimpanzees, bonobos, orang-utans and gorillas (Hominidae), but are separated out at the Sub-Family level, with humans, chimps and bonobos, and gorillas being placed in Homininae and orang-utans in Ponginae. Further separation occurs at the Genus level, with humans, chimps, bonobos and gorillas being classified as Homo, Pan and Gorilla respectively. Call for Objective Standards Simon Easteal, Head of the Human Genetics Group at the Australian National University in Canberra, believes that classification should be based on a more objective, uniform standard - namely, molecular distance (i.e. differences between species in terms of their DNA and protein). Traditional taxonomy is increasingly taking this into account (up until relatively recently humans and the other great apes belonged to different families), but still relies heavily on other, less objective, features (the current separation at genus level is largely based on such features as brain size, upright posture, absence of body hair etc. - these are real differences, but the importance or weight attached to them really depends on your point of view.) If Easteal's standard were to be adopted completely, then not only would we all be classified in the same sub-family, but at least the chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas would be placed in the same genus as humans (with orang-utans remaining in Pongo ). Considering the extraordinarily small molecular differences between us (our DNA differs from orangs by 3.6%, gorillas 2.2%, and from chimps and bonobos by a mere 1.6%), it is hard to see why we've been separated for so long. Further, because the genus Homo was named before the other African ape genera, scientific protocol dictates that this is the name that should be used. What this actually means is that there would no longer be just one extant representative of Homo , but four: Homo troglodytes (common chimp), Homo paniscus (bonobo or pygmy chimp), Homo gorilla (gorilla) and Homo sapiens (human) (a view also reached by Jared Diamond in his work The Rise and Fall of the Third Chimpanzee - an extract from which is reproduced in The Great Ape Project). Recent Divergence In addition to voicing support for this taxonomic reshuffle, Easteal has suggested that divergence times (i.e. when new species evolve) have been largely overestimated, and outlines what such findings mean for the fossil record. Current thought has it that the so-called 'molecular clock' (the rate at which DNA changes over time) ticks at a different speed depending on what species you happen to be. Specifically, it is thought that the rate of change in humans is slower than that of other mammals, including our fellow great apes. For example, when humans and chimps diverged, their DNA changed independently, with the rate of human change being slower than the chimp's. This means that their divergence time is considerably earlier than would otherwise be expected, based on a 1.6% genetic difference. Easteal has shown, however, (through a procedure known as the 'relative rate test') that the rate of change is in fact the same for all species (at least amongst mammals). Hence, humans should be seen as having diverged from orangs 8-9 million years ago, from gorillas 5 million years ago, and chimps and bonobos 3.6-4 million years ago. As well as setting a cat amongst the pigeons in terms of the fossil record, such an evolutionary shake-up serves to highlight further the close connections between humans and the other great apes. Bipedalism Not Unique to Humans? The other consequence of such findings is that the divergence of chimps and humans actually post-dates both Australopithecus afarensis and the recently discovered A. ramidus. This means that these may be the common ancestors of chimps and humans, rather than two species well and truly on the human evolutionary path. And, further, it suggests that bipedalism (so often held up as the exclusive preserve of human evolution) may in fact have been present in one or both of these common ancestors, with chimpanzees then evolving from that state to their present mode of locomotion (i.e. they returned to a largely arboreal existence). If Easteal's revision gains the support of the scientific community, then not only would we all be placed in the same family, but the chimps, bonobos and gorillas (at least) would become members of the genus Homo. This would not only represent a radical shift in scientific thinking, but force us all to rethink the way we treat our fellow great apes. Geneticists Professor David Penny and Dr Elizabeth Watson of Massey University, New Zealand, both founding members of GAP New Zealand, are working with Dr Easteal on this. In 1989, Elizabeth Watson conducted research that looked at ways of resolving the trichotomy between humans, chimpanzees and gorillas using the pseudogene eta-globin. We hope to have more details in a later newsletter. BOOK REVIEW Theory of Mind Sanjida O'Connell Black Swan, London, 1996, £6.99 A common feature of human rights and liberation movements has been the production of exploratory works of art, fiction and drama. Campaigns for fair treatment for humans are now underpinned by a wealth of literature of personal experiences, ideas, creativeness and humour. Until recently, this avenue has been badly neglected by advocates of equality for other animals. But, as this book shows, things are beginning to change. Theory of Mind is the unlikely and intriguing title of a novel. Written by former coordinator of the Great Ape Project-UK, Sanjida O'Connell, it tells of Sandra, a PhD student who is doing research on the emotions of chimpanzees. This involves devising experiments to try to establish whether chimpanzees attribute thoughts, beliefs and desires to other chimpanzees and to humans, i.e. do they have a theory of mind? A lot of the events are set in the private zoo where the chimpanzees live, and provide worrying and amusing insights into the day-to-day running of the establishment. One hesitates to ask whether any of this is based on the author's personal experience. We are drawn to view the numerous characters, chimpanzee and human, in terms of their ability to feel empathy, or lack of it. In this respect, Theory of Mind succeeds admirably. While reading it, I found myself seeing my own actions and those of the people around me in terms of empathy. Perhaps more directly than self-consciousness, empathy - entering into the thoughts, feelings and suffering of others - is intimately linked with the possibility of ethical behaviour. Underpinned by striking descriptions and flashes of humour, the plot gradually takes us into some bizarre and disturbing areas. The destructive acts described are partly explicable by a lack of fellow-feeling, or they are committed by those who have a capacity for empathy but who fail to act on it. This is an enjoyable, exciting read, providing plentiful food for thought for supporters of the Great Ape Project. Mike Garner --------------------------------------------------------------------- A DECLARATION ON GREAT APES We demand the extension of the community of equals to include all great apes: human beings, chimpanzees, gorillas and orang-utans. The community of equals is the moral community within which we accept certain basic moral principles or rights as governing our relations with each other and enforceable at law. Among these principles or rights are the following: 1. The Right to Life The lives of members of the community of equals are to be protected. Members of the community of equals may not be killed except in very strictly defined circumstances, for example, self-defence. 2. The Protection of Individual Liberty Members of the community of equals are not to be arbitrarily deprived of their liberty; if they should be imprisoned without due legal process, they have the right to immediate release. The detention of those who have not been convicted of any crime, or of those who are not criminally liable, should be allowed only where it can be shown to be for their own good, or necessary to protect the public from a member of the community who would clearly be a danger to others if at liberty. In such cases, members of the community of equals must have the right to appeal, either directly or, if they lack the relevant capacity, through an advocate, to a judicial tribunal. 3. The Prohibition of Torture The deliberate infliction of severe pain on a member of the community of equals, either wantonly or for an alleged benefit to others, is regarded as torture, and is wrong. --------------------------------------------------------------------- If you endorse The Declaration on Great Apes, please sign below and send to: The Great Ape Project-International, PO Box 19492, Portland, OR 97280-0492, USA or to your national section of the Great Ape Project (Please tick under Info if you want more information) I/We Endorse The Declaration on Great Apes (Please write clearly) Name Address (post or e-mail) Signature Info Bridging the GAP is the newsletter of: The Great Ape Project-International PO Box 19492 Portland OR 97280-0492 Oregon, USA (c) Great Ape Project-International Material from this newsletter can be copied and distributed for non-profit purposes as long as it is attributed to Great Ape Project-International. Some of the text of "A New Life Begins" was previously published in the Friends of Washoe newsletter. The Great Ape Project can also be contacted on e-mail at: GAP@envirolink.org Messages will be passed on to local coordinators. GAP on the Internet: http://www.envirolink.org/orgs/gap/gaphome.html --------------------------------------------------------------------- DONATIONS The Great Ape Project needs money to continue and expand its work. This can be sent to national GAP representatives, or to GAP-International. At present we can only accept Visa payments in Australian dollars. (AUS$ 1 US$ 0.77) A facility for credit card payments in US dollars will be available soon. --------------------------------------------------------------------- GAP NEWS BY E-MAIL If you have access to the Internet, and would prefer to receive your GAP news and newsletters by eco-friendly e-mail, please send a message to: GAP@envirolink.org If you received a copy of this newsletter by post, let us know the name and address to which it was sent, and the e-mail address for future newsletters. Some or all of each newsletter will also be posted on GAP-International's Web site: http://www.envirolink.org/orgs/gap/gaphome.html You will be able to download them from there. BUY THE BOOK? Read the book that began it all : The Great Ape Project: Equality Beyond Humanity, edited by Paola Cavalieri and Peter Singer. UK Edition, 1993. Published by Fourth Estate, London. £10.00 inc. P&P in the UK £12.50 inc. P&P outside the UK Send cheque or international money order to: The Great Ape Project-UK PO Box 6218 London W14 0GD UK US Edition, 1994. Published by St Martin's Press, New York, US$ 14.50 inc. P&P inside North America US$ 16.50 inc. P&P outside North America Send cheque or international money order to: The Great Ape Project-USA PO Box 19492 Portland OR 97280-0492 Oregon USA WEAR THE T-SHIRT! (c) Tom Weatherhead 1995 Wear your GAP is the Key Tshirt with pride. T-shirts with Tom Weatherhead's design are available from GAP-International and national GAP organisations. Write for details now! (Contact your national GAP) --------------------------------------------------------------------- German edition, 1994. Published by Goldmann. Menschenrechte für die Großen Menschenaffen "The Great Ape Project" 40 DM inc P&P within Germany 42 DM inc P&P within Europe Other destinations - please write for details. Send cheque or international money order to: Great Ape Projekt Postfach 616234 D-22450 Hamburg Germany